Interference On Automatic And Controlled Cognitive Processing Tasks Psychology Essay

Interference On Automatic And Controlled Cognitive Processing Tasks Psychology Essay The effect of interference was explored during a modified Stroop experiment. This paper reports a study of the response times taken to complete a variation of the Stroop test; to determine whether automatic cognitive processes associated with reading interfere with controlled processes associated with colour naming tasks. It was found that naming ink colour was slower for a list of colour-related words than when neutral words were used, showing that interference does occur during an interaction of automatic and controlled cognitive processes. These findings are concurrent with previous empirical research which has shown that performance decreases when completing more than one task at a time. INTRODUCTION The senses receive a phenomenal amount of information from stimuli but it is understood that the brain has a limited capacity of resources available to process this information (Kahneman, cited by Edgar 2007). Attention is the fundamental cognitive process that mediates between what is sensed and perceived, this incorporates the selection and processing of some information and the disregard of. An important concept to consider is that by understanding cognitive processes such as attention and perception, inferences can be made about how behaviour may be affected (Edgar 2007). Within the attentional information processing framework, two distinct modes of cognitive functioning exist; controlled processing and automatic processing (Gross 2005, Edgar 2007). Schneider and Shiffrin (cited by Edgar 2007) distinguished several characteristics between controlled and automatic processing. Controlled processing demands heavily on attentional resources, is capacity-limited, slower and involves conscious directing of attention towards a task. In contrast, automatic processing makes little or no demands on attentional resources, is relatively fast, unaffected by capacity limitation and is not subject to conscious awareness (Gross 2005, Edgar 2007). The ability to perform tasks automatically is advantageous as it means there are still resources available for the processing of other tasks. Everyday experiences and laboratory experiments indicate that it is possible to perform two or more tasks simultaneously and efficiently (Edgar 2007), e.g. holding a conversation while cooking or driving. However Kahneman highlighted disadvantages, claiming that interference can occur when attempting more than one task at a time; each task is thought to compete for resources from a central processer (cited by Edgar 2007). For example it is not possible to read and hold a conversation at the same time. Posner and Boies also observed that despite simplification, performance may decrease when people perform more than one task at a time (cited by Edgar 2007). To explain, when a task such as reading is well learned and practised, it becomes automatic. The automaticity of reading is so powerful that it is difficult to avoid or change and this can interfere with ability to respond to other tasks such as naming colours (Edgar 2007). This is clearly demonstrated by the Stroop effect, a classic and robust phenomenon associated with cognition and reaction time (cited by Edgar 2007). In 1935 Stroop revealed that if a colour word was written in a conflicting colour (such as blue being written in red) participants would find it difficult to name the colour the words were written in (Gross 2005, Edgar 2007). The above research into automatic and controlled processing provides the motivation for conducting this experiment. The aim is to test whether interference will intrude on the cognitive processing during a variation of the Stroop Test. The words used in this experiment are manipulated to include a colour-related list (instead of actual colour words used by Stroop) and a neutral list. The research hypothesis is that it will take longer for participants to name the ink colour of the list of colour-related words than to name the ink colour of neutral words. This is a one-tailed hypothesis. The null hypothesis is that there will be no difference in the time that it takes for participants to name the ink colour for the lists of colour-related and neutral words. METHOD Design The experiment was conducted using a within-participants design. The independent variable comprised 2 conditions, a list of colour-related words (the experimental condition) and a list of neutral words (the control condition). The words were printed in different coloured ink, and each participant was required to name the ink colour of each word in both conditions. The dependant variable was the time taken to name the ink colour of the words in each condition. Response times for each condition were measured by the researcher using a stopwatch, and recorded to the nearest second. All participants were read the same standard instructions, and the conditions used were identical except for the manipulated variable; the actual words printed (colour-related/neutral words). To counterbalance for order effects the participants were given a number from 1 to 20, the odd numbered participants completed condition 1 followed by condition 2, and the even numbered participants completed condition 2 and then 1. Participants The sample included 20 participants; 16 were recruited by staff at The Open University and were colleagues, friends or family members. The remaining 4 were opportunistically recruited by the researcher; they were family members who volunteered. There were 10 males and 10 females ranging from 30 to 60 years old. All participants were naive to the hypothesis of the experiment but were briefed beforehand, signed a consent form, and were debriefed afterwards. Each participant had normal or corrected to normal vision, ability to distinguish colours, and ability to read and speak English. Materials The stimuli presented in each condition consisted of a list of 30 words, printed in two columns on a sheet of A4 paper. The experimental condition consisted of the following colour-related words; BLOOD, LEMON, GRASS, CARROT, PLUM and SKY, printed in a colour incongruent with the word (e.g. BLOOD was not printed in red ink, SKY was not printed in blue). The control condition consisted of the following neutral words; BLAME, LEDGE, GRADE, CAREER, PLAN and STY. Each word was printed five times in a random order; both conditions matched for corresponding words, and were printed in same ink colours, size, font and order (see Appendix 1 for both stimuli). Standard written instructions were used (see Appendix 2), and a consent form was completed by each participant (see Appendix 3). A digital stopwatch was used to measure response times, and all data collected were recorded on a response/data sheet (Appendix 4). Procedure Each participant was approached and asked to take part in an experiment, on the understanding that it was associated with naming ink colour of lists of words, as part of an investigation into cognitive processing, and to provide data for the researchers assignment. The participants were asked if they had any knowledge of the Stroop effect to determine naivety of the hypothesis. Once it was ascertained that those who agreed to participate were suitable for the experiment (with normal or corrected to normal vision, and ability to read and speak English, and distinguish colours), their written consent was obtained. Participants were tested individually; demographic data was recorded including age and sex, before the standard instructions in Appendix 2 were read out verbatim. These told the participant that they would be presented with a list of words, in two columns, that they should work through saying aloud the colour of ink each word is printed with. They were told to complete the ta sk as quickly as possible. An example was given and once each individual confirmed that they understood what they had to do, the first stimuli was placed face down on a desk. When the participant was ready it was turned over and the experimenter started the stopwatch. On completion of the last word the stopwatch was stopped and the time it took to complete the task was recorded to the nearest second on the response sheet. The second stimuli was then placed face down immediately and the procedure was repeated. The odd numbered participants completed Condition 1 then 2 and the even numbered participants completed Condition 2 then 1. After the response time was recorded for the second task, the participant was debriefed. They were informed about the nature of the Stroop effect and the differences between the two conditions. They were also given the opportunity to ask any questions, their anonymity was reiterated and they were thanked for their contribution. RESULTS The research hypothesis was that it will take longer for participants to name the ink colour of the words on the colour-related list than to name the ink colour of the list of neutral words. The time it took for each participant to complete the task was measured in seconds and recorded on a data sheet (see Appendix 4). Table 1 below shows the differences between mean response times and standard deviation for both conditions. The colour-related words condition took 2.9 seconds longer, on average, to complete than the neutral words condition. The standard deviation indicates that there is a greater dispersion of response times (in relation to the mean) in condition 1 than in condition 2. Further SPSS Descriptive Statistics output can be seen in Appendix 5. Table 1. Mean Response Time (in seconds) For Each Condition Condition Mean Response Time (in seconds) Standard Deviation Colour-related words (Condition 1) 24.15 5.304 Neutral words (Condition 2) 21.20 5.180 Inferential statistical analysis was conducted on the data, including a paired samples t-test (t (19) = 3.276; p = .002; d = 0.553), which showed that the differences between conditions were statistically significant and not due to sampling error (see Appendix 6 for SPSS inferential analysis output). As the effect size shows a difference of 0.5 standard deviation points, it was considered to be a medium sized effect (Cohen cited by DSE212 Course Team 2007, p172). Based on this analysis, the hypothesis was accepted and the null hypothesis was rejected. DISCUSSION The results of this experiment showed that there was a significant increase in the time taken to name the ink colour of the list of colour-related words compared with the list of neutral words. This was consistent with the Stroop effect and supports the experimental hypothesis of the study. Intrusion that resulted from interference is consistent with Kahnemans model, suggesting that if tasks compete for a single pool of resources interference occurs. It is also consistent with Schneider and Shiffrins descriptions of automatic processes and controlled processes (cited by Edgar 2007). As reading the colour-related words is automatic and unavoidable, controlled processing is required to remove the automatic colour-related word response and replace it with the correct verbal ink colour response. This takes extra processing time and explains the greater response times measured for the colour-related task. Automatic processing is relatively quick, and requires less mental effort than controlled processes that are comparatively slower and require greater conscious effort. This explains why reading is processed before the colour naming response is processed and verbalised. It was observed that the even-numbered participants who completed condition 2 first, had a very small mean difference in response times between both conditions compared with those who completed condition 1 first (this is graphically presented in Appendix 7). This shows that counterbalancing for order effects was an effective design. It would be interesting to explore this effect in a repeated but larger study of the same design; it is possible the participants completing the neutral word list first had developed a strategy for naming ink colours during the second condition, such as focusing on the first letter of a word, rather than reading the colour-related word automatically. This could be explored further in future. There were several limitations to the methodology of the experiment. Although the number of participants used for this study was effective in showing the predicted Stroop effect (for the population tested), the sample size was small and so there cannot be widespread comparison or generalisations. Also, the experiment itself was an unnatural situation and people are unlikely to find themselves in real life situations where they have to read out lists of words or colours. The experiment therefore also lacks ecological validity. Two of the researchers participants made mistakes by naming the wrong ink colour, of which they were unaware. Data was not collected during the experiment in relation to numbers of errors that occurred, but this could be considered in future, noting whether errors are corrected or not. A failure of conscious or controlled attention to notice errors has potential consequences in real life situations. The automaticity of reading has been a focal point of this experiment, but an alternative study could incorporate the use of printed numbers, instead of words to see if similar effects of interference occur with automaticity of recognising numbers as opposed to reading words. Also, while this experiment clearly demonstrates the effects of interference that Kahneman described, it offers no explanation for how tasks performed simultaneously can be done so effectively this is another area that could be explored in future research through dual-task experiments.

Asses the Significance of the Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles did not dismantle Germany from its ability to wage war; it neither made the people grateful towards the allies. As the Italian political philosopher Niccolo Machiavelli of the 1500’s stated â€Å"___________†. The Treaty imposed many demands of the war weary country, these demands did not have an immediate effect on the country, and it instead gave a long-term legacy of bitterness and humiliation. The defeat of the German military was a shock to most Germans, as they were made to believe that they would be the victors in the â€Å"Great War†. The Treaty came as an equal shock, as it gave the government no chance to negotiate the terms. The terms included military provisions to be changed, territories to be given away and reparations to be paid. The military of Germany was to be reduced to 100,000 and Germany was not allowed to produce any guns, poisonous gas or tanks. These terms affected many Germans especially wealthy industrialists who made large profits from the business. Those thousands employed into factories to build weapons also lost their jobs. The German military was at a time four million strong before the war with the reduced military this put thousands of trained men onto the streets without employment, these men would prove later to be enemies of the new republic. The German General Staff was dismantled, therefore putting influential generals such as Ludendorff and Hindenburg unemployed but most importantly there loyalty was to nobody since the Kaiser abdicated. This allowed ambitious politicians to take advantage of the famed generals as they persuaded them to join their political parties. An example of this is Hitler having Ludendorff join him in his 1924 failed Munich Beerhall Putsch, he was used as a symbolic figure supporting Hitler’s regime. The powerful navy that German had, was to be reduced to a mere few ships, and the U-boats were strictly forbidden. This had the same affect as it did with the army; it put hundreds of sailors on the streets unemployed and angry. Since it was not the Military that decided to sign the armistice they felt a sense of betrayal from the new government. This was to be called the â€Å"Stab in the back† theory, which was used by the military to explain why they were defeated and recalled. This theory was made to preserve the unscathed honor of the German military. The territories that the Treaty demanded were immense. The long held provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were taken by France. These provinces had been held by Germany since 1871, the people were a generation of Germans and the immediate change came as a shock. The Allies also claimed economic control over the rich coal-producing area of the Saar basin, its workers were German but the production was to go to France. This had a dramatic effect on the amount of coal German was producing, before the war Germany war producing 277 million tonnes and 14 million tonnes of steel. Because of the economic control of the Saar basin both of these vast industries were badly disabled, this therefore effected Germany producing an effective income from these industries that it prospered. The large region of Posen was created into a new country called Poland, but the allies determined that the new nation needed access to the sea. Therefore part of West Prussia was given to Poland, this area was called the Polish Corridor where many Germans lived, now under the new country Poland. The large city of Danzig was also taken from Germany and taken by the control of the new-formed League of Nations. Schleswig a region farthest north of Germany and south of Denmark was to be given to the government of Denmark, as the regions of Eupen and Malemdy was given to Belgium. The large area of the Rhine land, which lied on the border of Belgium and France, was to be demilitarized effectively stopping any further motivations to invade France. Germany had ten colonies based in Africa and Asia; these colonies had an overall population of fifteen million, adding trade and tax income to Germany’s government. But the Allies stated in the Treaty that Germany was â€Å"Colonially Unworthy† and as a result lost control of all her colonies. These colonies were controlled and administrated by the League of Nations. All these territorial demands from the Treaty of Versailles not only had an economic impact to the German country but it had a morale effect of humiliation to the German populace. Many articles in German Newspapers such as the Deutsche Zeitung stated, â€Å"German honor is being carried into its grave†¦. The German people will with unceasing labor press forward to reconquer the place among nations to which it is entitled. † and as well politicians used this as propaganda promising that their party will reclaim German honor. The Treaty also forced Germany to take full responsibility of the war. The Allies made them accept that it was their fault and that the countries all suffered because of Germanys selfishness. Because they were blamed for the war the Allies saw fit that they were to pay for the reparations of the war. This amount concluded to 32 billion American dollars, this was but a mere partial cost to the war but Germany still tried to resist paying the total amount. The reparations were not paid until 1921 a full three years after the signing of the Treaty. The initial German reaction the terms of the treaty was shock and anger. Since the Kaiser abdicated it fell upon the new government to sign the treaty, because of this the Weimar Republic was always held accountable for disgracing Germany. There were many in Germany, who urged a rejection of the treaty like Hindenburg, but many more had a realistic perspective and insisted that the government sign it; these people were General Groener and other members of the Reichstag. The initial anger and outbursts the treaty invoked on the people was of hopelessness, the reality was that Germany had little choice other than to accept the treaty. If the Government did not sign the Treaty the country would have been dismantled like it was after World War 2. The Treaty of Versailles importance is clearly exemplified in its determined effect of Germany. The country lost about thirteen percent of its territory, 12 percent of its population and a combined 64 percent of its iron and coal industries. But Germany still remained one of the strongest countries on the continent. As the Treaty effected the country on an emotionally level, the Germans of all classes were disgraced and angry at the Weimar Republic for signing the treaty. The Treaty obviously did not destroy Germanys ability to create an army (WW2) nor did it encourage them to not go to war. The effect of the Treaty forced a generation of Germans to swear vengeance on the Allies.

Armageddon Essay - 4482 Words

Armageddon In 1998, Touchstone Pictures released Armaggedon, the most recent in a premillenial barrage of films focused on the end of the world. The film included a trendy Hollywood cast, headlined by Bruce Willis, Billy Bob Thornton, and Ben Affleck, and was directed by Michael Bay, whose previous film credits included the 1996 top ten hit, The Rock. Although Armageddon received nods from the Academy of Motion Pictures for Best Effects (Sound Effects Editing and Visual Effects), Best Music (Song), and Best Sound, film critics were not so enthusiastic. On average, Armageddon received 1 ½ to two stars. The American public, on the other hand, made Armageddon the second most profitable film of 1998, exceeding its sister film, Deep†¦show more content†¦Nevertheless, the team miraculously reaches target depth only a few minutes before the asteroid reaches zero barrier. 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Feminism And Gender Roles Importance - 1632 Words

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